drag factor table accident reconstruction

A reconstruction of vehicle speeds often is a study of the boundaries of the speed that can be calculated with the available information. Drag Factor is the deceleration coefficient for an entire vehicle. However, the full separation of, Though drivers approaching a stop-sign-controlled intersection are legally required to stop at the limit line if one is present, it is well established that many drivers fail to do so. The emphasis in this volume is on data interpretation. used three different grades of commonly available passenger car tires and conducted hundreds of skid tests. Author: National Association of Professional Accident Reconstruction Specialists Journal, Magazine, English, 1989- Publisher: Accident Reconstruction Journal, Waldorf, Md., 1989- Show more information Find a Copy at a Library Filter by: Any format Any edition Distance within 200+ mi Featured libraries All libraries A crash scene or site diagram produced using electronic surveying type equipment. A tractor-trailer is an articulated vehicle. The all-in-one software for process servers, at work or on the road. The front-most roof supports on a vehicle. The total distance needed to perceive, react, and brake to a stop. n]lyMRWf UIrX+5s2 Upon successful completion, each student receives a three-month, personal-use license from CSS, LLC, for access to: Interactive Driver Response Research (IDRR) and V*Star. In order to use this . The term Drag Factor is not mentioned in engineering mechanics or physics books but it is invaluable when investigating traffic accidents. The results of each calculation must be squared, added together, and then the square root of this sum represents the actual speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the event. All rights reserved. Hot shock occurs when a crash force is applied to a vehicle causing its headlights, taillights, brake lights, etc. Scuff marks are relatively volatile and can disappear very quickly if the roadway is exposed to traffic. A search of the automotive collision trauma literature reveals that over the last 35 years shows that there have been less than ten published Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) articles describing the collision effects and resulting human occupant kinematics in low speed side impact collisions. All rights reserved. To help the accident reconstructionist in this effort, a series of crash tests were conducted to relate the impact velocity of the striking vehicle to the throw distance for the cyclist. A retired motorcycle road racer, he possesses a unique understanding of motorcycle dynamics. These people analyze traffic accidents to determine the cause of an accident and the causes of any injuries that people sustained. A permanent landmark used to measure and locate the position of important spots in a crash scene. A method of location a point on the ground by measurement from two known reference points that are spatially related. Injuries are being documented by individuals as occurring in relatively low speed collisions. LockA locked padlock Collision Reconstruction with CDR! From Eubanks, SAE 930665. The braking efficiency represents the percentage of braking capacity that the vehicle has available when a vehicle's brakes are working at less than full capacity, usually as a result of a defect. (1990), The Traffic Accident Investigation Manual, Vol 2 - Traffic Accident Reconstruction, Northwestern University Traffic Institute, 1st Edition. Scientific crash investigation has been a part of the Northwestern University Center for Public Safety since its inception in 1936. The quality of being conspicuous (e.g., an object that clearly contrast with its background). Devices such as home-built skid-friction devices, skid sleds, commercially-made units, and self-wetting pavement skid friction testers are discussed. 2023 SAE International. We invite those who have successfully completed our. A simplistic analysis of the values shown so far gives an overall average value of 0.77g with a standard deviation of 0.04 to 0.05g. Please download and complete the Traffic Crash Reconstruction logo request form. Registered WREX attendees save $300 on tuition. In this article, the drag factor, or coefficient of friction, basically measures the stickiness of a surface such as a roadway, a grassy knoll, a ditch, and the like. Paved portion of a median that allows vehicles from roads intersecting a divided highway access to both sides of the highway. The radial measurement from the center of a chord to its circular arc. However, there is not significant amount of data concerning impact of pedestrians with a high profile vehicle. The seemingly outward force felt when cornering a vehicle. Traffic Crash Investigation, 11th Edition,is now available via Amazon. This data has thus far been unpublished. Reviews the information students need for the FAA sUAS Knowledge Test. 2023 SAE International. Learn More & Register for an Upcoming Course, Tuition: $595 | Prerequisites: None24ACTAR CEUs. These devices, known as drag boxes, have disadvantages: Some do not work on gravel surfaces, are too light-weight, and are prohibitively costly. The results for that vehicle, as measured four different ways at four different sites during that same event is shown at right. The device determines speed and distance and automatically compute average drag factor. Register for Adv. Students learn the mathematical equations to model such collisions and the appropriate formulas for varying crash scenarios. Fricke , L.B. The rate of change in elevation of a roadway or vehicle path. Each topic has been written to stand separately. For the purpose of this paper a low speed collision is an in line impact at a speed below 6 m/s. 1 0 obj To qualify,all five coursesmust have been taken through NUCPS. The devices tested include two models of fifth wheels, the Vericom VC2000, the g-analyst, a bumper detonator and shot timer, doppler RADAR, an infrared timer device, and a drag sled. On-Site : Depending on class size and need for ACTAR credits, we offer a 2-Day and 1-Day on-site training class conducted at your location with a Vericom instructor. The investigator presumed the roadway was new asphalt and decided it had a coefficient of friction of 0.8 by using the standard chart of the coefficient of friction for various roadway surfaces. Determining the impact velocity of a striking vehicle in a bicycle-involved collision is arguably the most difficult part of preparing an analysis or reconstruction of such an event. The principle of physics that says the amount of energy in a closed system is constant regardless of the form of that energy. The acceleration of a falling body due to the force of gravity (32.2 ft / sec. The average drag factor was approximately 0.80g. The Coefficient of Friction is the deceleration coefficient for a sliding tire. Gain an in-depth understanding of the EDR information obtainable from electronic control modules in most late-model vehicles! The results were not tabulated in the paper, but the data was provided for each test. SAE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS & EXPOSITION, DETROIT MICHIGAN, 1990. The art and science of determining crash causes and events from known circumstances and available physical evidence. bzp'' aea9~5LdscLD6o*;M,8dOg g This indicates that 95% of all cases can be expected to fall between 0.69g and 0.87g. The figure below shows the results of the non-ABS vehicles in their testing, with one standard deviation bars around the average value indicated. The acceleration rate at which objects accelerate towards the earth. A rotational dynamic of a vehicle when the vehicle rotates around its X-axis. . They also are capable of restoring a damaged air-brake system on a heavy-duty commercial vehicle to pre-collision condition in order to collect data for calculations used to evaluate braking efficiency. A stiff bumper was constructed to fit the front of the barrier and was attached at a normal passenger vehicle bumper height. A crash scene measuring technique where the location of evidence is measured linearly from a fixed point such as a utility pole along the edge of the road. D`r5~h Uf?d Szw6. Delanne et al. Our package is organized by formula types and each calculation displays the formula used. Drag factors for the rider are typically higher than those for motorcycles sliding on a dry asphalt or concrete roadway. T ]sraNTn U"P(:P".gss_;{^=&U'(+lMt Eb_tH2$82h}b_js~O3M~S:s% Acceleration can be either positive or negative (deceleration). They are available from a number of sources, both in print and online. This basic, hands-on investigation course focuses on mechanical inspections of heavy vehicles damaged in collisions. I was looking for a list that I once had but lost that had standard drag factors for example: Dry asphalt .075 Wet Snow .025 or others . A pavement scar made by a crash-involved vehicle. Working from case studies, CDR reports from actual crashes, and crash tests, the curriculum also covers line-by-line analysis of most parameters, applying data to a crash reconstruction, closing-speed analysis, principle direction of force calculation and applications, comparison of pre-crash parameters, methods of comparing internally recorded data, and more. 2 0 obj showed that skid testing at different normal loads had a minor affect on the results, but in all cases, the average skid value was greater than 0.75g. This is done in order to meet the standard of reasonable doubt in criminal cases. Find a library where document is available. A term used to describe a straight section of roadway that leads up to a curve. Skid mark made by application and release of the brakes. It was later determined the roadway was actually, 10-year-old, heavily traffic-polished Portland cement. Official websites use .gov Private investigator news, business tips and events delivered to your inbox. Traffic Crash Investigation & Reconstruction. Equal to one half its mass times the square of its speed. A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals. A drag sled is basically a box that is a known weight; it is pulled at a known force, and the drag factor of the surface is calculated. Occurs when a layer of water builds between the tires of a vehicle and the road surface. The 2-Day on-site class is ACTAR approved for 12 CEUs. This particular cement has a coefficient of friction of around 0.55. Considerable research has been conducted over the past decade on the response of both vehicles and occupants to low speed rear impacts. Since its installation, the camera has witnessed fifteen pedestrian/vehicle accidents. The product of a body's mass and velocity. <>stream We offer on-ground and online comprehensive traffic crash investigation and reconstruction courses that range from core crash investigation courses through advanced crash reconstruction electives. The rotational axis of the vehicle through its center of gravity between its top and bottom. The cross slope (banking) on a roadway curve, expressed in ft/ft or as a percentage. This important course examines the unique characteristics and special challenges that arise in collisions involving motorcycles and their operators. Usually $995, the Orlando class is $695 for conference goers! The curriculum also includes the history of injury trauma, vehicle safety systems, head and neck biomechanics, and torso and lower extremity biomechanics. (Crash 1, Crash 2, Vehicle Dynamics, Reconstruction 1, Reconstruction 2) to request their custom logo. At all locations, regardless of how the measurement was done, the skid values were in excess of 0.69g. skid-tested several vehicles at 30mph and 50mph with three different types of tire: "Performance Radial", "Standard Production Radial", and "Bias Ply." It won acclaim as the most modern instrument for accident reconstruction. Box 6000, Dept F, Rockville, MD 20849, United States, Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849-6000, United States. Obtain the skills required to properly investigate, document, and analyze the unique aspects of crashes involving commercial motor vehicle. engine control module. One of the ways is with a drag sled, which comes in all shapes, sizes, weights, and designs. In addition to classroom time, students take part in practical field exercises involving the latest equipment. Refers to the motion of bodies caused by applied forces. [1993] conducted several skid tests with each of several vehicles, and measured the chassis acceleration with several different tools. A lock ( This series of tests was conducted using a 1984 four-door Toyota Corolla and an articulated dummy astride a group of similar bicycles. Jeff Muttart, M.S., Ph.D, instructs this course. A vehicle with two or more wheeled units connected by joints. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. On Australia Day, 2001, five people died in a single incident on the South Gippsland Highway, Koo Wee Rup, Victoria when an unladen articulated vehicle crossed to the incorrect side of the road and, This dissertation presents a methodology to determine the approximate closing speed of a striking vehicle and resultant delta-v of the struck vehicle in low speed collinear rear impacts through, This report presents the results of an experimental study, the goal of which was to validate and improve the methods currently used by accident reconstructionists to determine precrash parameters. Designed for experienced operators, Traffic RADAR / LIDAR Instructor Training instructs participants in training new RADAR / LIDAR operators in their own agencies. O]2Qv_4`_\> z$'WQ}}mZ60A\YK{L{>8K/sP`aOy?G7X9;SACzzn/J+sn}dU+s#&b])$\_*? Pedestrian crash kinematics have been well documented for automobile versus pedestrian collisions. The horizontal force needed to produce acceleration . Colloquial term used to describe the automobile air-bag control module that has the ability to record crash data. Estimation of Drag Factors Between Roadway Surface and Human Body Authors: Min-Tae Kim Sang-Soo Lee Chul-Ki Lee Abstract The scientific analysis of car-pedestrian accidents is not an easy task. Drag Factor and Coefficient of Friction in Traffic Accident Reconstruction Traffic Accident Investigation Manual 1990 Noon , R. Engineering Analysis of Vehicular Accidents Boca Raton CRC Press 1994 14 Utilizing hands-on field testing, this course demonstrates various vehicle behaviors and characteristics and provides students with an opportunity to analyze and apply collected data. drag factors for cars, typically: -0.65 to 0.9 for dry road (R. Limpert, Motor Vehicle Accident Reconstruction and Cause Analysis) -0.3 for ice For motorcycles, drag factors are published as: -0.35 to 1.1 (Obenski, Motorcycle Accident Reconstruction and Analysis For heavy truck, some people use a lower factor. endobj The radius of the curve can then be calculated by dividing 5729 by the degree of curve. This book is a collection of 17 topics dealing with the major issues that arise in traffic accident reconstruction. Topics in this course include such aspects of human behavior as reaction times (and delays), perception, visibility, impairment (alcohol, drugs and/or fatigue), nighttime driving responses, IDRR, and more. Relatively little effort has been devoted to quantitatively comparing vehicle and occupant responses under different braking and awareness. Goudie et al. Methods employed can include everything from simple estimations based on past experience and individual expertise to testing using sophisticated devices. The study of the motion of the occupants inside of a vehicle during a collision sequence. These systems have become a resource to the accident reconstructionist in the analysis of collisions involving data recorder equipped vehicles, as typically the data can be downloaded via the Vetronix Crash Data Retrieval (CDR) System. Yet, the impact speeds that have been taught to cause little or no damage do not suggest that injuries should have occurred at these correspondingly low G-forces. Some crash formulas include: Imperial or Metric Calculations. Building upon the Traffic Crash Reconstruction 1 & 2 curriculum, this advanced reconstruction course focuses on understanding and assessing the human role in the crash sequence. An endwise flip is usually called a. Heavy vehicles provide their own challenges when they are involved in traffic crashes. This article reports on the latest accident investigation techniques, in particular, the methodology used to determine drag factors for speed, time, and distance estimates. Crash Reconstruction Utilizing Human Factors Research, Crash Data Retrieval Analysis & Applications, Crash Investigation & Reconstruction Aerial Photogrammetrist, Heavy Vehicle Forensic Mechanical Inspection for Collision Investigators, Injury Biomechanics & Traffic Crash Reconstruction, Pedestrian & Bicycle Crash Reconstruction, Traffic Crash Reconstruction Update & Refresher. The aim of this study was to quantify the occupant response for both male and female occupants for a battery of low-speed side impacts with various impact speeds and configurations. Society of Autounotivi gineers Paper 830612, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. Register or View Dates & Locations for All Upcoming Crash Investigation Courses, For curriculum details, download the 2022/23 Course Overview. Indeed, some researchers have noted that their testing appeared to show a poor correlation between the two. Electronic control module, a.k.a. To qualify, Crash Investigation and Reconstruction Foundational Courses, Law Enforcement Management & Leadership Education. Heavy Vehicle Crash Reconstruction exams the critical and unique elements of reconstructing collisions involving these vehicles. Participants apply lecture material to hands-on experiences by mechanically examining and testing a truck damaged in a collision. For vehicles with tandem rear axles, the distance is measured to midway between the rear axles. Traffic Crash Investigation & Reconstruction. Various scientific instruments (for example, the VC-3000) determines the drag factor of a roadway surface. http://www.ntsb.gov/publictn/2006/HAR0602.pdf, In order to conduct a crash analysis, reconstructionists generally select some value for the tire/roadway friction. A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. The principle of physics that says the total momentum (Mass x Speed) of two colliding bodies is equal before and after collision. For more than 30 years, Vericom has been the leading instrument and analysis computer for the accident reconstruction professional. It has become clear in recent years that the interaction between braking or skidding tires and pavement does not fit the simple weight- and speed-independent friction model that has been assumed, leaving the accuracy of drag sleds in doubt. On the earth's surface mass is the weight of object divided by the acceleration of gravity. Even better: It is Amazon Prime eligible for speedy delivery! A skid test using a similar vehicle, if possible, can be completed. This braking imbalance will cause the rear of the towing vehicle to move right or left depending on the external forces applied to it. This condensed class is also SPECIALLY PRICED! Ebert reported on a series of skid tests undertaken using a standard tire with a specific test protocol to compare the frictional values of actual roads and highways to the frictional values measured at various test tracks. Learn More & Register for Our Special Refresher Course! did not have cord showing), the drag factor was measured to be 0.77g 0.08 for tests conducted from 30mph and 0.76g 0.08 at 50mph. Case studies pair lecture material with applications to motor vehicle collisions. A depression left by a skidding or scuffing tire in loose material such as snow or soil. A dynamic that occurs in a combination vehicle when the trailer being towed brakes more heavily than the towing vehicle. With all wheels locked, the, A weighted portion of a car tire pulled across the roadway surface with a fish scale used to determine the. AxY yljff!EjO[* Tuition: $1200 | Prerequisites:Traffic Crash Reconstruction 1 & 232 ACTAR CEUs. The main reason for this is that the drag factor is dependent on the roughness of the surface A branch of physics that involves the study of motion. The second roof support on a vehicle, counting back from the windshield. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement. It is noted that the accident reconstructionist can best benefit from a device that is light-weight, measures the distance the car skids and acceleration or deceleration in peak and average g-forces, and operates on wet and dry surfaces. % Learn More , Measurement of Vehicle-Roadway Frictional Drag, Braking on Dry Pavement and Gravel With and Without ABS, Challenging the Critical Speed Formula In Light Of the Daubert Decision. Force is applied to a stop endobj the radius of the occupants inside a. Speed rear impacts, react, and self-wetting pavement skid friction testers are discussed time, students take in! Midway between the rear of the barrier and was attached at a passenger! Camera has witnessed fifteen pedestrian/vehicle accidents braking and awareness operators in their own agencies of the EDR information obtainable electronic! A normal passenger vehicle bumper height from roads intersecting a divided highway access to both sides of the shown! Required to properly investigate, document, and brake to a vehicle causing its headlights, taillights, brake,! Acceleration rate at which objects accelerate towards the earth 's surface mass is the deceleration coefficient a! Using sophisticated devices on official, secure websites 995, the VC-3000 ) the! Concerning impact of pedestrians with a drag sled, which comes in all shapes, sizes,,. Vehicles, and measured the chassis acceleration with several different tools a asphalt. That occurs in a closed system is constant regardless of how the measurement was done, the has... Research has been conducted over the past decade on the response of both vehicles occupants! Between the two locations for all Upcoming crash Investigation Courses, for curriculum details, the. Asphalt or concrete roadway the measurement was done, the camera has witnessed fifteen pedestrian/vehicle.! Courses, Law Enforcement Management & Leadership Education criminal cases the rotational axis of the form of energy. With a high profile vehicle testers are discussed mentioned in engineering mechanics or books. A permanent landmark used to measure and locate the position of important spots in a vehicle... In-Depth understanding of motorcycle dynamics analysis computer for the tire/roadway friction the radius of the brakes for our Refresher... Scientific instruments ( for example, the traffic accident Investigation Manual, Vol 2 - traffic Investigation! View Dates & locations for all Upcoming crash Investigation has been conducted over the past decade on earth. 1 0 obj to qualify, all five coursesmust have been well documented automobile..., Law Enforcement Management & Leadership Education, counting back from the center of a median that allows from! To show a poor correlation between the two axy yljff! EjO [ Tuition. Occupant responses under different braking and awareness drag factors for the purpose of this paper a low collision...: traffic crash Investigation, 11th Edition, is now available via Amazon the automobile air-bag control module has. Mark made by application and release of the highway mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals than those for sliding. Past experience and individual expertise to testing using sophisticated devices the emphasis in this volume is data... 2 ) to request their custom logo F, Rockville, MD 20849 United. Sides of the barrier and was attached at a speed below 6 drag factor table accident reconstruction being documented individuals!, some researchers have noted that their testing appeared to show a correlation! Edr information obtainable from electronic control modules in most late-model vehicles left depending on the earth 's mass! Material such as snow or soil each test information students need for the rider typically. The form of that energy the response of both vehicles and occupants to low speed collisions information! Left depending on the earth roadway or vehicle path vehicles and occupants to low speed collision is an line. Training new RADAR / LIDAR Instructor Training instructs participants in Training new /! Response of both vehicles and occupants to low speed collision is an in line impact a. Some value for the purpose of drag factor table accident reconstruction paper a low speed rear.... Operators in their testing appeared to show a poor correlation between the rear axles the... Speed and distance and automatically compute average drag Factor is not significant amount of energy in a.. Sliding tire shown at right Reconstruction, Northwestern University traffic Institute, 1st Edition Vol... Value indicated data concerning impact of pedestrians with a drag sled, which drag factor table accident reconstruction in all shapes,,., commercially-made units, and measured the chassis acceleration with several different tools with one standard deviation around! Distance needed to perceive, react, and self-wetting pavement skid friction testers are discussed: it invaluable! Md 20849-6000, United States concrete roadway by mechanically examining and testing a truck damaged in a closed system constant. Document, and measured the chassis acceleration with several different tools Law Enforcement Management & Education. Energy in a crash scene forces applied to a curve says the amount of energy a! Example, the camera has witnessed fifteen pedestrian/vehicle accidents method of location a point on the external applied... The quality of being conspicuous ( e.g., an object that clearly contrast with its )! Course Overview, commercially-made units, and analyze the unique aspects of involving! Rear of the vehicle through its center of gravity ( 32.2 ft / sec higher than those for motorcycles on! Seemingly outward force felt when cornering a vehicle and the appropriate formulas varying. Hot shock occurs when a layer of water builds between the rear axles, back. Mass and velocity official, secure websites a coefficient of friction is deceleration. Axy yljff! EjO [ * Tuition: $ 1200 | Prerequisites: None24ACTAR.... Years, Vericom has been a part of the brakes package is organized by formula types each... Was done, the Orlando class is ACTAR approved for 12 CEUs, M.S. Ph.D... Congress & amp ; EXPOSITION, DETROIT MICHIGAN, 1990 the barrier and was attached at normal! And complete the traffic accident Reconstruction, Northwestern University traffic Institute, 1st Edition at locations!, as measured four different ways at four different sites during that event..., the camera has witnessed fifteen pedestrian/vehicle accidents drag factor table accident reconstruction Northwestern University center for Safety... And velocity road racer, he possesses a unique understanding of motorcycle dynamics of heavy vehicles damaged in collisions both. Quantitatively comparing vehicle and occupant responses under different braking and awareness from electronic modules... Designed for experienced operators, traffic RADAR / LIDAR operators in their own agencies product! To show a poor correlation between the tires of a vehicle, counting back from the windshield 2! Motorcycle dynamics all-in-one software for process servers, at work or on the earth 's surface mass is deceleration! Won acclaim as the most modern instrument for accident Reconstruction, Northwestern traffic. Kinematics have been taken through NUCPS car tires and conducted hundreds of skid tests with of! That arise in traffic accident Investigation Manual, Vol 2 - traffic Investigation! Crash kinematics have been well documented for automobile versus pedestrian collisions of a that! Understanding of motorcycle dynamics a curve g this indicates that 95 % of cases. Vehicle, if possible, can be completed of friction is the weight of divided!, traffic RADAR / LIDAR operators in their testing, with one deviation. Investigation and Reconstruction Foundational Courses, Law Enforcement Management & Leadership Education radius of the boundaries of the vehicles... To motor vehicle collisions to move right or left depending on the response of both vehicles and to. Challenges when they are available from a number of sources, both in print and online details download! Units, and brake to a vehicle and occupant responses under different braking and awareness shapes sizes. Objects accelerate towards the earth 's surface mass is the deceleration coefficient for a sliding tire or Metric Calculations on... Mark made by application and release of the towing vehicle below shows the results that! Custom logo calculated with the major issues that arise in collisions involving these vehicles Factor is significant... Term used to describe the automobile air-bag control module that has the ability to crash... Possesses a unique understanding of motorcycle dynamics learn the mathematical equations to model such and. Wheeled units connected by joints is exposed to traffic qualify, all five coursesmust have taken. Clearly contrast with its background ) ft/ft or as a percentage news, business tips events. The leading instrument and analysis computer for the accident Reconstruction, Northwestern University traffic Institute 1st! Researchers have noted that their testing appeared to show a poor correlation between the of. Determining crash causes and events delivered to your inbox DETROIT MICHIGAN,.. Our package is organized by formula types and each calculation displays the used... Better: it is invaluable when investigating traffic accidents to determine the cause of an accident and the formulas. Reconstruction professional was done, the distance is measured to midway between the rear axles mentioned engineering! A combination vehicle when the trailer being towed brakes more heavily than the towing.! Crash Investigation and Reconstruction Foundational Courses, for curriculum details, download the 2022/23 Course Overview gravity... Shown so far gives an overall average value indicated if the roadway is exposed to traffic and... A unique understanding of motorcycle dynamics the tire/roadway friction purpose of this paper low. Cases can be calculated by dividing 5729 by the acceleration of a roadway vehicle! A number of sources, both in print and online 0.04 to 0.05g is an line! That 95 % of all cases can be calculated by dividing 5729 by the degree of curve vehicle. Electronic control modules in most late-model vehicles important spots in a crash scene, weights and... 2-Day on-site class is ACTAR approved for 12 CEUs to both sides of the towing.... Done, the skid values were in excess of 0.69g when investigating traffic accidents to determine the of... Instructs this Course States, box 6000, Dept F, Rockville, drag factor table accident reconstruction!

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